Boise State University Information

BSU was originally founded as Boise Junior College in 1932 and was sponsored by the Episcopal Church. Regional accreditation was approved in 1941 and four-year status was approved in 1965. Boise Junior College officially entered the state system of higher education in 1969 as Boise State College and adopted its current name in 1974.

The University now awards associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees. It is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities.

Boise State University defines its goal as “to foster an intellectual atmosphere that produces educated, literate people—people knowledgeable of public affairs, committed to lifelong learning, and capable of creative problem-solving.”

Branch campus sites are located in Canyon County Center, Gowen Field, Mountain Home, and Twin Falls. Courses are offered in these campuses through the vision of extended studies, which also runs summer programs, noncredit programs, distance education, and other programs.
Boise State University Academics

Boise State includes nine Colleges and Divisions that offer 190 different fields of study, as well as research and internship opportunities. In addition to the colleges of Applied Technology (Selland College), Arts & Sciences, Business & Economics, Education, Engineering, Health Sciences, and Social Sciences & Public Affairs; Boise State is home to a Division of Extended Studies that provides opportunities for distance learning, professional development, weekend classes, summer classes, and international programs.

Bachelor’s degrees are awarded in a number of different disciplines in all colleges (except the Graduate College). Some of the fields of study represented include the arts and sciences, wildlife management, theatre arts, visual arts, exercise, science, education, engineering, radiology, nursing, communication, political science, manufacturing systems technology, semiconductor technology, and wildland fire management. Certificates and associate degrees are offered in many of the technology programs and in other fields such as legal assistance. The University offers interdisciplinary minors in addiction studies, Canadian studies, and gender studies, and a certificate in dispute resolution. A minor to become a legal assistant is also available.

Master’s degrees are awarded in 46 fields. These include various degrees in education, music, engineering, creative writing, and in raptor biology. An MFA in visual art and an MSW in social work are also available. The business school offers an MBA. Graduate certificate programs are also available in addiction studies, geospatial information analysis, health services leadership, technology integration, online technology, school technology coordination, and technical communication.

The school awards two doctoral degrees, an Ed.D in education curriculum and instruction, and a Ph.D. in geophysics.
Unique Programs

Sixteen special research, service, and development centers are located at Boise State. These include such diverse areas of interest as Economic Education, Idaho History, Conflict Management, and Raptor Research. While the centers provide classes and specializations that might be of interest to undergraduates, they are primarily focused on research and informing the public about their particular areas of focus.

Boise State’s colleges and divisions offer several unique interdisciplinary minors. These areas of study combine the curriculum of two or more fields to give students specialized areas of expertise. They are Addiction Studies, Canadian Studies, Dispute Resolution, Legal Assistance, and Gender Studies.
Financial Aid

Boise State requires that students who receive or are eligible to receive financial aid make satisfactory academic progress, file their FAFSA on time, demonstrate financial need, provide proof of a high school diploma or GED, not be default on prior loans, and register with Selective Service. Aid programs include grants, government loans (including the PLUS loan), alternative loans that may be provided through a private service, scholarships, and work-study programs located on campus.

In-state tuition and fees for undergraduate students were $3520 in 2004-2005. Students applying from out of state and graduate students will have different costs.

Financial aid is available with a combination of grants, scholarships, loans, and work-study programs.
Boise State University Students

In addition to the numerous classroom, dormitory, athletic, and administration buildings, Boise State University has a center for the performing arts with a ten-story stage, 732 mezzanine seats and 1268 Orchestra level seats.

The Boise State University Library offers electronic catalogs and on-line databases, in additional to physical volumes stored on site. Special collections include rare books, manuscripts, photographs, and other materials related to Idaho and the American West, a map library, and federal, state and local government materials.

Boise State is home to 18,500 making it the largest university in the State of Idaho. The campus is home to 170 student organizations and includes new residence halls and the $12 million Student Recreation Center. Students have the opportunity to get involved in a number of organizations, including service-learning, the campus radio station, and various Greek organizations. The Arbiter is the campus’ student-run newspaper and publishes submissions from student writers and editors.

The Student Recreation Center includes a gymnasium with three full-size basketball courts, four racquetball courts, a student lounge, massage therapy facilities, a climbing gym, a free weight area, and a group exercise room.
Boise State University Traditions

Few trademarks are as recognizable or as proudly demonstrated as the blue astro turf of Bronco Stadium. Every televised game and following highlight makes the stadium undeniably recognizable to every Bronco fan across the country.
Local Community

Boise is rightly called the City of Trees for its urban parks and outstanding outdoor life. A river flows through the city, providing 25 miles of riverfront green space to play and relax in. Other outdoor attractions include the Morrison-Knudsen Nature Center and the World Center for Birds of Prey. There are a good deal of cultural attractions in Boise, including the Idaho Anne Frank Human Rights Memorial and the Idaho Black History Museum. City facilities accommodating athletes looking to play golf, tennis, or just take a swim.

The city of Boise is the capital of the Idaho, and Idaho’s largest city. Some of the arts and cultural programs available in the area include ballet, theatre, visual arts, museums of history, the World Center for Birds of Prey, and outdoor recreational parks and facilities, including Bogus Basin Ski Resort.

Read more: Boise State University Information, Academics, History, Financial Aid, Alumni, Academics, Campus, and Students http://boise.stateuniversity.com.

History of Cigars Book

Dating back to the Arawak Indians who greeted Columbus on his arrival in the West Indies, the cigar is for many a symbol of all the good things in life. It is a luxury on a par with the finest of wines or a truly gastronomic meal, which it accompanies admirably. The first book in the Cigars boxed set explores the history and traditions of the cigar, from how cigar tobacco is grown and harvested, to the significance of the cigar ring and how to detect a counterfeit cigar. There is a practical buyer's guide listing shops and clubs completing the volume. The second book takes the reader on a taste tour of individual cigars, exploring the qualities of sight, smell, touch, and taste that make a truly great cigar. Eighty-eight cigars are tested in total: eighty from Cuba, undeniably the greatest cigar-producing country in the world, with the remaining examples drawn from the Canaries, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Each cigar is presented via a clear, easy-to-read table, giving it a mark out of ten based on criteria such as flavor, aroma, and quality of combustion. Each table is accompanied by an original, life-sized photograph of the cigar under examination. The handy presentation of the Cigars boxed set and the range of interesting facts presented makes this the perfect gift for anyone who revels in the aroma of a fine Monte Cristo or Romeo y Julieta.

History of USA

For many years I have contemplated writing a history of the United States in a single volume, that should fall between the elaborate works, which are beyond the reach of most busy people, and the condensed school histories, which are emasculated of all literary style through the necessity of crowding so many facts into small space.

In writing this history my aim has been to present an accurate narrative of the origin and growth of our country and its institutions in such a form as to interest the general reader. I have constantly borne in mind the great importance of combining the science of historical research with the art of historical composition. I have aimed also, especially when treating the national period, to balance the narrative and critical features in intelligent proportion. A mere recital of facts, without historic criticism, without reference to the undercurrents that move society, is no longer acceptable in this age of thinking readers.

I have endeavored to write, as stated, for the general reader, but not with a patronizing form of expression, as if addressed to the uneducated, or to children, nor with a burden of worthless incident and detail, nor yet with any effort to please those who delight only in the spectacular. At the same time, knowing that many intelligent people who wish to know something of their country are not fond of reading history, I have given careful attention to style, in the hope that the book might be easy and pleasurable to read, as well as instructive.

I have devoted much space to the life of the people, -- their habits, modes of life, occupations, general progress, and the like, especially in the earlier period when they differed most widely from ourselves. But in treating the national period I have, however, without neglecting the industrial and social features, given greater space to political and constitutional development, as in this the life of a people who govern themselves is epitomized.

In my treatment of wars and disputes with foreign powers, I am aware that, with all my effort to view a subject from a neutral, judicial standpoint, an unconscious bias may be discerned; but should the book find any foreign readers, I beg them to remember that I have written absolutely sine ira.

In treating the Civil War and the great events that led to it, I have taken the utmost care to be fair to both sides; though as a native and resident of the North I no doubt partake of the prejudice of my section, if such prejudice can still be said to exist. I have refrained from using the terms "rebel" and "traitor" to designate those who rose in rebellion against the government, because of my profound respect for their sincerity.

One subject -- American literature -- I had hoped to treat with greater fullness; but I found that an adequate treatment of this very important subject would require too great a space for the scope of this volume. It is therefore recommended that this phase of our history be studied in separate works devoted to the purpose.1

The notes at the ends of the chapters are intended to elucidate something that has preceded in the text, to give personal traits of leading characters, to mention matters of too meager importance for the main narrative, or, as in many cases, to relate some event of real importance which did not exactly fit in the body of the text.

In preparing this work I have had frequent recourse to the original sources, but make no pretense that the work is based wholly, or even chiefly, on original research. I have freely used the works of other writers. A large number of these have been cited in the footnotes for the purpose of aiding the reader who desires to pursue the subject further, or to acknowledge an obligation to an author whose thought or form of expression has been, in some measure, adopted. Much information, however, has been gathered from sources not herein mentioned.

That the work may be accepted as authoritative throughout, I have exercised the utmost care to secure historic accuracy; but absolute accuracy is not always attainable, especially where points are under dispute, and where such a great number of subjects are to be treated. The pointing out of any errors by the reader will be deemed a kindness.

My thanks are due to many kind friends for suggestions; to various librarians in Philadelphia and New York for special courtesies; to Mr. Stewart Culing, former curator and Indian specialist of the University of Pennsylvania, who kindly read and criticised the chapter dealing with the Indian character. Above all, I am indebted to Professor Herman V. Ames of the University of Pennsylvania, who read the greater portion of the manuscript and made many important suggestions. To his thorough scholarship and ripe judgment I have deferred in many instances.

Information Of Mars

 Named for the Roman god of War, Mars probably got this name due to its red color. It is sometimes referred to as the Red Planet. The name of the month March derives from Mars. Known since prehistoric times, Mars is still a favorite of choice for human exploration.

The density of Mars is about 30 percent less than that of Earth (3.94 g/cm3 vs. 5.52 g/cm3). Its core is probably similar to Earth's, mostly iron, with small amounts of nickel, but spacecraft mapping of its gravity field seem to indicate that its iron-rich core and mantle are a smaller portion of its volume than on Earth. Also, its smaller magnetic field than Earth, indicates a solid, rather than liquid core.

Mars' atmosphere is 95 percent carbon dioxide, nearly 3 percent nitrogen, and nearly 2 percent argon with trace quantities of oxygen, carbon monoxide, water vapor, ozone, and other trace gases.

The average temperature on Mars is about -55 C or -67 F. It can range from -133 C or -207 F at the winter pole to almost 27 C or 80 F on the day side during summer. Orbiting 227,940,000 km (1.52 AU) from Sun, the Martian year is nearly two Earth years, while its day is only about half an hour longer than Earth's.

History of 15th June

June 15 is the 166th day of the year (167th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 199 days remaining until the end of the year.
Contents
[hide]

    1 Events
    2 Births
    3 Deaths
    4 Holidays and observances
    5 External links    763 BC – Assyrians record a solar eclipse that is later used to fix the chronology of Mesopotamian history.
    923 – Battle of Soissons: King Robert I of France is killed and King Charles the Simple is arrested by the supporters of Duke Rudolph of Burgundy.
    1184 – King Magnus V of Norway is killed at the Battle of Fimreite.
    1215 – King John of England puts his seal to the Magna Carta.
    1219 – Northern Crusades: Danish victory at the Battle of Lyndanisse (modern-day Tallinn) establishes the Danish Duchy of Estonia. According to legend, this battle also marks the first use of the Dannebrog, the world's first national flag still in use, as the national flag of Denmark.
    1246 – With the death of Duke Frederick II, the Babenberg dynasty ends in Austria.
    1389 – Battle of Kosovo: The Ottoman Empire defeats Serbs and Bosnians.
    1520 – Pope Leo X threatens to excommunicate Martin Luther in papal bull Exsurge Domine.
    1580 – Philip II of Spain declares William the Silent to be an outlaw.
    1667 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys.
    1752 – Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity (traditional date, the exact date is unknown).
    1775 – American Revolutionary War: George Washington is appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
    1776 – Delaware Separation Day – Delaware votes to suspend government under the British Crown and separate officially from Pennsylvania.
    1785 – Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, co-pilot of the first-ever manned flight (1783), and his companion, Pierre Romain, become the first-ever casualties of an air crash when their hot air balloon explodes during their attempt to cross the English Channel.
    1804 – New Hampshire approves the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratifying the document.
    1808 – Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain.
    1836 – Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S. state.
    1844 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.
    1846 – The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
    1859 – Pig War: Ambiguity in the Oregon Treaty leads to the "Northwestern Boundary Dispute" between United States and British/Canadian settlers.
    1864 – American Civil War: The Second Battle of Petersburg begins.
    1864 – Arlington National Cemetery is established when 200 acres (0.81 km2) around Arlington Mansion (formerly owned by Confederate General Robert E. Lee) are officially set aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton.
    1867 – Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode gold mine located in Montana.
    1877 – Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy.
    1888 – Crown Prince Wilhelm becomes Kaiser Wilhelm II; he will be the last Emperor of the German Empire.
    1896 – The deadliest tsunami in Japan's history kills more than 22,000 people.
    1904 – A fire aboard the steamboat SS General Slocum in New York City's East River kills 1,000.
    1905 – Princess Margaret of Connaught marries Gustaf, Crown Prince of Sweden.
    1909 – Representatives from England, Australia and South Africa meet at Lord's and form the Imperial Cricket Conference.
    1913 – The Battle of Bud Bagsak in the Philippines ends.
    1916 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America, making them the only American youth organization with a federal charter.
    1919 – John Alcock and Arthur Brown complete the first nonstop transatlantic flight when they reach Clifden, County Galway, Ireland.
    1920 – Duluth lynchings in Minnesota.
    1920 – A new border treaty between Germany and Denmark gives northern Schleswig to Denmark.
    1934 – The U.S. Great Smoky Mountains National Park is founded.
    1937 – A German expedition led by Karl Wien loses sixteen members in an avalanche on Nanga Parbat. It is the worst single disaster to occur on an 8000m peak.
    1940 – World War II: Operation Ariel begins – Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation.
    1944 – World War II: Battle of Saipan: The United States invade Japanese-occupied Saipan.
    1944 – In the Saskatchewan general election, the CCF, led by Tommy Douglas, is elected and forms the first socialist government in North America.
    1945 – The General Dutch Youth League (ANJV) is founded in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
    1954 – UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) is formed in Basel, Switzerland.
    1955 – The Eisenhower administration stages the first annual "Operation Alert" (OPAL) exercise, an attempt to assess the USA's preparations for a nuclear attack.
    1978 – King Hussein of Jordan marries American Lisa Halaby, who takes the name Queen Noor.
    1985 – Rembrandt's painting Danaë is attacked by a man (later judged insane) who throws sulfuric acid on the canvas and cuts it twice with a knife.
    1992 – The United States Supreme Court rules in United States v. Álvarez-Machaín that it is permissible for the United States to forcibly extradite suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the USA for trial, without approval from those other countries.
    1994 – Israel and Vatican City establish full diplomatic relations.
    1996 – The Provisional Irish Republican Army explodes a large bomb in the middle of Manchester, England.
    2002 – Near-Earth asteroid 2002 MN misses the Earth by 75,000 miles (121,000 km), about one-third of the distance between the Earth and the Moon.

2011 Summer Solstice

   Sol + stice derives from a combination of Latin words meaning "sun" + "to stand still." As the days lengthen, the sun rises higher and higher until it seems to stand still in the sky.

As a major celestial event, the Summer Solstice results in the longest day and the shortest night of the year. The Northern Hemisphere celebrates in June, but the people on the Southern half of the earth have their longest summer day in December.

Early Celebrations

Awed by the great power of the sun, civilizations have for centuries celebrated the first day of summer otherwise known as the Summer Solstice, Midsummer (see Shakespeare), St. John's Day, or the Wiccan Litha.

The Celts & Slavs celebrated the first day of summer with dancing & bonfires to help increase the sun's energy. The Chinese marked the day by honoring Li, the Chinese Goddess of Light.
Perhaps the most enduring modern ties with Summer Solstice were the Druids' celebration of the day as the "wedding of Heaven and Earth", resulting in the present day belief of a "lucky" wedding in June.

Today, the day is still celebrated around the world - most notably in England at Stonehenge and Avebury, where thousands gather to welcome the sunrise on the Summer Solstice.

Pagan spirit gatherings or festivals are also common in June, when groups assemble to light a sacred fire, and stay up all night to welcome the dawn.


Summer Solstice Fun Facts

    Pagans called the Midsummer moon the "Honey Moon" for the mead made from fermented honey that was part of wedding ceremonies performed at the Summer Solstice.

    Ancient Pagans celebrated Midsummer with bonfires, when couples would leap through the flames, believing their crops would grow as high as the couples were able to jump.

    Midsummer was thought to be a time of magic, when evil spirits were said to appear. To thwart them, Pagans often wore protective garlands of herbs and flowers. One of the most powerful of them was a plant called 'chase-devil', which is known today as St. John's Wort and still used by modern herbalists as a mood stabilizer.

More about summer solstice around the Web:

On the Web, discover more about the topic, where & how Summer Solstice is celebrated around the world along with related history, folklore and rituals that mark the much-awaited long, bright days of summer ....

Summer Solstice - Good overview of its history, customs & holidays, illustrations, date & time charts and related links, from Wikipedia.

Summer Solstice Celebrations - Ancient & Modern - Skip past the intrusive ads for a detailed discussion about how the day has been celebrated over the centuries, and in many cultures, with suggested reading and related links.

BBC Religion - Summer Solstice - A brief overview of Pagan rituals and ceremonies with related links to more facts & information.

Weird Wilstshire - Summer Solstice - Archived pictures with a report on one particularly successful UK sunrise celebration, including related links & online forum.

The Pagan Festival of Litha - The origins of Druidic Summer Solstice celebrations and their meaning in the natural cycle of seasons.

Father's Day Wishes

 Father's Day gives every kid a special opportunity to honor and render his/her earnest thanks to his dad. On this glorious occasion, children indulge in a lot of activities that perfectly articulate their feelings and emotions. Right from delivering sermons, organizing surprise parties to hosting lunch, dinner or brunch, the list of options goes endless. However, you may indulge in anything, but wishing your dad on this special day is primary. You can either wish him by giving him a card or an e-card or even by reciting a few lines. While penning a few lines may be quite easy for some, but most of you would agree that expressing your deep felt emotions in a few lines turns out to be quite a difficult task at hand. To make expression of feelings easy, we have listed below some Father's Day wishes, just for you, so that you can tell your dad how much you love and care for him.

Happy Fathers Day Wishes

In happiness, in sorrow
You were always there for me
I may not have always said it
But, it's the day to say it loud.
'I Love You Dad'
Wish you a superb Father's Day!

Hoping this Father's Day is special
The kind that you won't forget
One of the happiest you've had
In fact, the happiest yet!
Have a Brilliant Fathers Day !

Wishing a special dad a Father's day filled with all the things that give you a warm and happy feeling and leave you with bright memories to look back through the year.
Happy Fathers Day

Because you're such a special Dad, this comes with love to say-You're wished a world of happiness today and every day!
Happy Fathers Day

Today like many other days brings warmest thoughts of you, and all the ways you brighten life for others all year through...
That's why this greeting comes to bring a special wish your way,
To hope that happiness and love will fill your Father's Day.
With Warmest Wishes Just For You

Because you're always thought about in such a special way, because you always do so much to brighten any day..
Because you bring such happiness to others all year through, this wish for joy on Father's Day is warmly meant for you.

Now that Father's Day is here, there's nothing that means more, than wishing a special Dad like you, all you're hoping for
With Special Love on Father's Day

It's a time for celebrating and for getting presents, too-A time for doing all things that you most like to do.
Happy Father's Day

Here's a little song to say "Happy, happy Father's day!"
No one's Father is so sweet.
Your kind ways just can't be beat.
Happy happy Father's day;
I love you in a big way!
With Love on Father's Day

Daddy is my special friend,
The two of us are buddies.
I always like the things we do,
I'm thankful for my daddy.
Happy Father's Day Dad!!

History of London

 

Londinium was established as a civilian town by the Romans about seven years after the invasion of AD 43. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park. In around AD 60, it was destroyed by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica. However, the city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years, the city growing rapidly over the following decades. During the 2nd century Londinium was at its height and replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain (Britannia). Its population was around 60,000 inhabitants. It boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, temples, bath houses, an amphitheatre and a large fort for the city garrison. Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards, however, led to a slow decline.

At some time between 190 and 225 AD the Romans built the defensive London Wall around the landward side of the city. The wall was about 3 kilometres (2 miles) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8 ft) thick.

In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates.[citation needed] This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define London's perimeter for centuries to come. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Moorgate is the exception, being of medieval origin).

By the 5th century the Roman Empire was in rapid decline, and in 410 AD the Roman occupation of Britain came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the century was practically abandoned.
[edit] Anglo-Saxon London
Main article: Anglo-Saxon London

Until recently it was believed that Anglo-Saxon settlement initially avoided the area immediately around Londinium. However, the discovery in 2008 of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Covent Garden indicates that the incomers had begun to settle there at least as early as the 6th century and possibly in the 5th. The main focus of this settlement was outside the Roman walls, clustering a short distance to the west along what is now the Strand, between the Aldwych and Trafalgar Square. It was known as Lundenwic, the -wic suffix here denoting a trading settlement. Recent excavations have also highlighted the population density and relatively sophisticated urban organisation of this earlier Anglo-Saxon London, which was laid out on a grid pattern and grew to house a likely population of 10-12,000.

Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the Middle Saxons, from whom the name of the county of Middlesex is derived, but who probably also occupied the approximate area of modern Hertfordshire and Surrey. However, by the early 7th century the London area had been incorporated into the kingdom of the East Saxons. In 604 King Saebert of Essex converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus, its first post-Roman bishop. At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King Æthelberht of Kent, and it was under Æthelberht's patronage that Mellitus founded the first St. Paul's Cathedral, traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although Christopher Wren found no evidence of this). It would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's pagan successors. The permanent establishment of Christianity in the East Saxon kingdom took place in the reign of King Sigeberht II in the 650s. During the 8th century the kingdom of Mercia extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation. London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s.

Total Lunar Eclipse

The shadow of the Earth can be divided into two distinctive parts: the umbra and penumbra. Within the umbra, there is no direct solar radiation. However, as a result of the Sun’s large angular size, solar illumination is only partially blocked in the outer portion of the Earth’s shadow, which is given the name penumbra. A penumbral eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth’s penumbra. The penumbra causes a subtle darkening of the Moon's surface. A special type of penumbral eclipse is a total penumbral eclipse, during which the Moon lies exclusively within the Earth’s penumbra. Total penumbral eclipses are rare, and when these occur, that portion of the Moon which is closest to the umbra can appear somewhat darker than the rest of the Moon.

A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the Moon enters the umbra. When the Moon travels completely into the Earth’s umbra, one observes a total lunar eclipse. The Moon’s speed through the shadow is about one kilometer per second (2,300 mph), and totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes. Nevertheless, the total time between the Moon’s first and last contact with the shadow is much longer, and could last up to 4 hours.[2] The relative distance of the Moon from the Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse’s duration. In particular, when the Moon is near its apogee, the farthest point from the Earth in its orbit, its orbital speed is the slowest. The diameter of the umbra does not decrease appreciably within the changes in the orbital distance of the moon. Thus, a totally eclipsed Moon occurring near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality.

The timing of total lunar eclipses are determined by its contacts:[3]

    P1 (First contact): Beginning of the penumbral eclipse. The Earth's penumbra makes contact with the outer limb of the Moon.
    U1 (Second contact): Beginning of the partial eclipse. The Earth's umbra touches the outer limb of the Moon.
    U2 (Third contact): Beginning of the total eclipse. The Moon is located completely within the Earth's umbra.
    Greatest eclipse: The peak stage of the total eclipse. The Moon is at its closest to the center of the umbra.
    U3 (Fourth contact): End of the total eclipse. The Moon's outer limb exits Earth's umbra.
    U4 (Fifth contact): End of the partial eclipse. The Earth's umbra leaves the surface of the Moon.
    P2 (Sixth contact): End of the penumbral eclipse. The Earth's shadow no longer makes any contact with the Moon.

A selenelion or selenehelion occurs when both the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time. This can only happen just before sunset or just after sunrise, and both bodies will appear just above the horizon at nearly opposite points in the sky. This arrangement has led to the phenomenon being referred to as a horizontal eclipse. It happens during every lunar eclipse at all those places on the Earth where it is sunrise or sunset at the time. Indeed, the reddened light that reaches the Moon comes from all the simultaneous sunrises and sunsets on the Earth. Although the Moon is in the Earth’s geometrical shadow, the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can appear in the sky at the same time because the refraction of light through the Earth’s atmosphere causes objects near the horizon to appear higher in the sky than their true geometric position.[4]

The Moon does not completely disappear as it passes through the umbra because of the refraction of sunlight by the Earth’s atmosphere into the shadow cone; if the Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be completely dark during an eclipse. The red coloring arises because sunlight reaching the Moon must pass through a long and dense layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, where it is scattered. Shorter wavelengths are more likely to be scattered by the air molecules and the small particles, and so by the time the light has passed through the atmosphere, the longer wavelengths dominate. This resulting light we perceive as red. This is the same effect that causes sunsets and sunrises to turn the sky a reddish color; an alternative way of considering the problem is to realize that, as viewed from the Moon, the Sun would appear to be setting (or rising) behind the Earth.

The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered. In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red color. This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next. Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting color.

History of Basketball

Basketball is a team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules. Basketball is one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports.[1]

A regulation basketball hoop consists of a rim 18 inches (45.7 cm) in diameter and 10 feet (3.05 m) high mounted to a backboard. A team can score a field goal by shooting the ball through the hoop during regular play. A field goal scores two points for the shooting team if a player is touching or closer to the hoop than the three-point line, and three points (a "3 pointer") if the player is "outside" the three-point line. The team with more points at the end of the game wins, but additional time (overtime) may be issued when the game ends with a tie. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or passing it to a teammate. It is a violation (traveling) to walk with the ball, carry it, or to double dribble (to hold the ball and then resume dribbling).

Various violations are generally called "fouls". Disruptive physical contact (a personal foul) is penalized, and a free throw is usually awarded to an offensive player if he is fouled while shooting the ball. A technical foul may also be issued when certain infractions occur, most commonly for unsportsmanlike conduct on the part of a player or coach. A technical foul gives the opposing team a free throw.

Basketball has evolved many commonly used techniques of shooting, passing, and dribbling, as well as specialized player positions and offensive and defensive structures (player positioning) and techniques. Typically, the tallest members of a team will play "center", "small forward", or "power forward" positions, while shorter players or those who possess the best ball handling skills and speed play "point guard" or "shooting guard".

While competitive basketball is carefully regulated, numerous variations of basketball have developed for casual play. Competitive basketball is primarily an indoor sport played on carefully marked and maintained basketball courts, but less regulated variations are often played outdoors in both inner city and rural areas.